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The structure of teacher education programmes reflects the educational priorities of the society and thus, in many contexts, it can be inferred that it is not a priority to ensure that teachers and school administrators have the knowledge base required to teach immigrant students effectively. g. Bankston & Zhou, 1995; Bishop & Berryman, 2006; McCarty, 2005; Ogbu, 1978, 1992; Portes & Rumbaut, 2001; Skutnabb-Kangas, 2000). As noted previously, groups that experience long-term educational underachievement have frequently experienced material and symbolic violence at the hands of the dominant societal group over generations.
In a largescale longitudinal study, Kieffer (2011) has reported that the effect of SES 10 Managing Diversity in Education on reading achievement appears to vary according to the grade level of the student: Findings from this study suggest that children’s socioeconomic backgrounds and those of their classmates do not exert uniform effects on reading across development. Rather, students from lower SES backgrounds start lower in reading achievement, but then make more rapid growth in the primary grades, and go on to demonstrate slower growth in the upper-elementary and middle school grades, compared to their peers with higher SES.
Because the construct of identity is conceptualized as ‘multiple, changing, and a site of struggle’ (p. 414), it cannot be reduced to a quantifiable variable whose influence on achievement can be objectively measured. They note that fieldwork-based studies of identity and language learning include ‘ethnographic observation, interviews (including life history interviews), diary studies, journal writing and written responses (narrative or other) to researcher questions’ (p. 428). 16 Managing Diversity in Education In addition to these qualitative studies, the role of identity negotiation in the performance of various cognitive tasks can be inferred from quantitative research into the phenomenon of stereotype threat (Steele, 1997).