By Michael C. Jackson
The writer completely describes and analyzes the main major platforms methodologies-`organizations as systems,' difficult, gentle, cybernetic, and critical-and demonstrates the complementary strengths of other platforms approaches.
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Extra info for Systems Methodology for the Management Sciences
Sample text
Both formal and informal aspects of organizations are granted attention in the organismic model. Moreover, organizations are seen as open systems, Theoretical Considerations 25 having to take action in response to environmental changes if they want to maintain a steady state. If organizations are like organisms, it is clear what must be done to correct any malfunctions. The subsystems must be examined to ensure that they are meeting the needs of the organization, and the organization examined to see that it is well adjusted to its environment.
Systems methodologies will be needed that are grounded upon all three types of knowledge, and might usefully be classified according to whether they can guide instrumental action oriented to the development of the forces of production, strategic action oriented to the development of steering capacities, or communicative action interested in the creation of mutual understanding free from domination. From the critical perspective it will be important to check that methodologies supporting the technical interest and based upon instrumental reason are self-reflective about their own limitations, and recognize their proper sphere of applicability.
Marxism is, of course, the best example of this kind of grand narrative. The history of all societies can be explained as leading to a communist utopia in which all conflict and contradiction are overcome. Not surprisingly, since his work combines elements from both types of grand narratives, Habermas is fingered by Lyotard as being the archetypal representative of critical modernism. Habermas proposes a unified theory of knowledge linked to different human interests, and aims his whole project at human emancipation directed by universal consensus arrived at in the "ideal speech situation," with participants presumably sticking to one language game.