By The Open University
This 10-hour unfastened path mentioned risks posed via sorts of volcanic eruption, illustrated through examples from contemporary eruptions.
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20 ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: •" . i :':':'e:':" o 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 TRUEl•C AGE(THOUSANDS OFYEARS) õ • 6 Fig. 6. Unequal effectsof contaminationof samplesfor radiocarbondatingwith variousamountsof recentand "dead" (no 14(2)carbon(fromGrootes,1983,andPierce,1986). However, for contaminationwith recent carbon,the effect is nonlinear and olderagesareaffectedmorethanyoungerages. P. 0 2000 methods,but others do not. The lack of closed-system behaviorof U andTh in magmatic andpostmagmatic processes is thoughtto causetheinconsistencies.
Severalweatheringtechniques areusedwidelyasrelativeagemethods, includingdegreeof soildevelopment anddegree of etching of mineral grains in soils (Birkeland, 1984), thicknessof weatheringrinds on volcanicclastsin soil B however, numerous environmental factors affect rates of weathering andleadto largeuncertainties. Wood (1980) studied the progressive degradation of scoria cones. Significantadvances havebeenmadein understanding therates andcontrollingfactorsof themodificationof scarpsproduced by faulting,shoreline processes, andstreams in unconsolidated deposits(Nash, 1986; Keller, 1986); in some instances calibrated modelsprovidenumerical-age estimates.
MG, graphic meangrainsizein phiunits;oG,graphicstandard deviation(measure of sorting;smallerthenumber, the betterthe sorting);C, sedimentconcentration of flow by weight. Changein size of largeparticles represents gradingof deposit. 4; Crandell,1971;Costa,1984;Scott,1988). Lahars share many features with other volcanic and nonvolcanicdiamicts(a nongeneticterm for a depositthat is poorlysorted,nonbedded,andcontainsa wide rangeof clast sizes). Somelaharsarenormallygraded,especially in their upperparts,othersare nongradedor reverselygraded.