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The following 60 years saw a radical modification in our understanding of the subatomic world. As experimental energies increased, hundreds of new particles (almost all of them unstable) were discovered. For a period of time the subject was in a considerable amount of confusion, but by the end of the 1970s a general understanding of the situation had emerged, along with a model – now called the Standard Model – that could describe all current knowledge of the subject [12]. 1 Bosons and Fermions Today we know that all matter and its physical interactions can be described in terms of two basic kinds of particles: bosons and fermions.
10), 30 An Introduction to Particle Physics and the Standard Model instead of ν we could have used ρ, σ, ς, or any Greek letter we wanted! We can use the summation convention for any repeated index (Greek or Latin). So Greek indices are summed from 0 to 4, and Latin indices from 1 to 3. Now by postulate (2), a pulse of light emitted at t = 0 and x = 0 in S has the same velocity in S . Hence the distance ds to the wavefront from any point ∆x in S at time ∆t is the same as the distance ds measured from any point ∆x in S at time ∆t .
It is simply not possible by any measurement we can make to tell one electron apart from another, or put a label on one π + to distinguish it from another π + . This property of elementary particles is unlike anything in our everyday experience in the macroscopic world, where we are used to things that are similar – such as identical twins, or computers off of an assembly line – but not exactly the same. The elementary microscopic constituents of our universe are huge in number – about 1080 particles in all – but are of only 38 elementary types (including antiparticles), as we shall see shortly.